She Was Just in a Bad Mood. Ill Ask Her Again When She Is in a Better Mood. This Is an Example of
Chapter thirteen. Defining Psychological Disorders
13.3 Mood Disorders: Emotions as Disease
Learning Objectives
- Summarize and differentiate the various forms of mood disorders, in particular dysthymia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder.
- Explicate the genetic and environmental factors that increment the likelihood that a person volition develop a mood disorder.
The everyday variations in our feelings of happiness and sadness reflect our mood, which tin can be defined as the positive or negative feelings that are in the background of our everyday experiences. In well-nigh cases we are in a relatively expert mood, and this positive mood has some positive consequences — it encourages united states to do what needs to be done and to make the almost of the situations nosotros are in (Isen, 2003). When we are in a good mood our thought processes open, and we are more than likely to approach others. Nosotros are more friendly and helpful to others when we are in a good mood than nosotros are when we are in a bad mood, and we may think more creatively (De Dreu, Baas, & Nijstad, 2008). On the other paw, when we are in a bad mood nosotros are more likely to adopt to be alone rather than interact with others, we focus on the negative things around us, and our creativity suffers.
Information technology is not unusual to experience downward or low at times, particularly after a painful issue such as the death of someone close to us, a disappointment at piece of work, or an statement with a partner. We often go depressed when we are tired, and many people report being particularly lamentable during the wintertime when the days are shorter. Mood (or affective) disorders are psychological disorders in which the person's mood negatively influences his or her physical, perceptual, social, and cognitive processes. People who suffer from mood disorders tend to experience more intense — and particularly more than intense negative — moods. Almost 5% of the Canadian population suffers from a mood disorder in a given year (Health Canada, 2002).
The well-nigh common symptom of mood disorders is negative mood, as well known every bit sadness or depression (Figure xiii.ix, "Depression"). Consider the feelings of this person, who was struggling with depression and was diagnosed with major depressive disorder:
I didn't desire to face anyone; I didn't want to talk to anyone. I didn't really want to exercise anything for myself…I couldn't sit down for a infinitesimal really to exercise anything that took deep concentration…It was like I had big huge weights on my legs and I was trying to swim and just kept sinking. And I'd get a little scrap of air, just enough to survive and then I'd get back down again. Information technology was just constantly, constantly just fighting, fighting, fighting, fighting, fighting. (National Institute of Mental Health, 2010)
Mood disorders can occur at any age, and the median historic period of onset is 32 years (Kessler, Berglund, Demler, Jin, & Walters, 2005). Recurrence of depressive episodes is fairly mutual and is greatest for those who kickoff experience low before the historic period of 15 years. Nigh twice as many women equally men endure from low (Culbertson, 1997). This gender departure is consequent beyond many countries and cannot be explained entirely by the fact that women are more likely to seek treatment for their depression. Rates of depression have been increasing, although the reasons for this increase are not known (Kessler et al., 2003).
As you tin come across in the list beneath, the experience of depression has a variety of negative effects on our behaviours. In add-on to the loss of interest, productivity, and social contact that accompanies low, the person's sense of hopelessness and sadness may become and so severe that he or she considers or even succeeds in committing suicide. In 2009 there were 3,890 suicides in Canada, a rate of 11.5 per 100,000 (Navaneelan, 2012). Almost all the people who commit suicide have a diagnosable psychiatric disorder at the fourth dimension of their death (Statistics Canada, 2012; Sudak, 2005).
Behaviours Associated with Low
- Changes in appetite; weight loss or gain
- Difficulty concentrating, remembering details, and making decisions
- Fatigue and decreased energy
- Feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and pessimism
- Increased use of alcohol or drugs
- Irritability, restlessness
- Loss of involvement in activities or hobbies once pleasurable, including sex
- Loss of interest in personal appearance
- Persistent aches or pains, headaches, cramps, or digestive problems that do not ameliorate with handling
- Slumber disorders, either trouble sleeping or excessive sleeping
- Thoughts of suicide or attempts at suicide
Dysthymia and Major Depressive Disorder
The level of depression observed in people with mood disorders varies widely. People who experience low for many years, to the point that it becomes to seem normal and part of their everyday life, and who feel that they are rarely or never happy, will likely be diagnosed with a mood disorder. If the low is mild only long-lasting, they volition be diagnosed with dysthymia, a condition characterized by balmy, but chronic, depressive symptoms that last for at least two years.
If the depression continues and becomes even more astringent, the diagnosis may become that of major depressive disorder. Major depressive disorder (clinical depression) is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied past low self-esteem and loss of interest or pleasance in usually enjoyable activities. Those who suffer from major depressive disorder feel an intense sadness, despair, and loss of interest in pursuits that one time gave them pleasure. These negative feelings profoundly limit the individual's twenty-four hour period-to-day functioning and ability to maintain and develop interests in life (Fairchild & Scogin, 2008).
Nearly iv.eight% of Canadian adults suffer from a major depressive disorder in any given year. Major depressive disorder occurs near twice every bit often in women as information technology does in men (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005; Kessler et al., 2003). In some cases clinically depressed people lose contact with reality and may receive a diagnosis of major depressive episode with psychotic features. In these cases the low includes delusions and hallucinations.
Bipolar Disorder
Juliana is a 21-yr-old single woman. Over the past several years she had been treated by a psychologist for low, simply for the by few months she had been feeling a lot better. Juliana had landed a good chore in a police force role and found a steady beau. She told her friends and parents that she had been feeling particularly proficient — her energy level was high and she was confident in herself and her life.
One twenty-four hours Juliana was feeling so skilful that she impulsively quit her new job and left boondocks with her boyfriend on a road trip. Just the trip didn't plough out well because Juliana became impulsive, impatient, and hands angered. Her euphoria continued, and in one of the towns that they visited she left her boyfriend and went to a political party with some strangers that she had met. She danced into the early on morning and ended up having sexual activity with several of the men.
Eventually Juliana returned home to ask for coin, but when her parents found out well-nigh her recent behaviour and confronted her, she acted aggressively and abusively to them, and then they referred her to a social worker. Juliana was hospitalized, where she was diagnosed with bipolar disorder.
While dysthymia and major depressive disorder are characterized by overwhelming negative moods, bipolar disorder is a psychological disorder characterized past swings in mood from overly "high" to pitiful and hopeless, and back again, with periods of near-normal mood in between. Bipolar disorder is diagnosed in cases such as Juliana'due south, where experiences with low are followed past a more normal menstruation and and so a flow of mania or euphoria in which the person feels particularly awake, alive, excited, and involved in everyday activities only is also impulsive, agitated, and distracted. Without treatment, it is likely that Juliana would bicycle back into depression and so eventually into mania again, with the likelihood that she would harm herself or others in the process.
Based on his intense bursts of artistic productivity (in one ii-month period in 1889 he produced 60 paintings), personal writings, and behaviour (including cut off his own ear), information technology is usually thought that Vincent van Gogh suffered from bipolar disorder. He committed suicide at age 37 (Thomas & Bracken, 2001). His painting, Starry Night, is shown in Figure 13.10.
Bipolar disorder is an often chronic and lifelong condition that may brainstorm in childhood. Although the normal design involves swings from high to depression, in some cases the person may feel both highs and lows at the aforementioned time. Determining whether a person has bipolar disorder is hard due to the frequent presence of comorbidity with both depression and feet disorders. Bipolar disorder is more likely to be diagnosed when it is initially observed at an early historic period, when the frequency of depressive episodes is high, and when in that location is a sudden onset of the symptoms (Bowden, 2001).
Explaining Mood Disorders
Mood disorders are known to exist at least in part genetic, because they are heritable (Berrettini, 2006; Merikangas et al., 2002). Neurotransmitters also play an important role in mood disorders. Serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine are all known to influence mood (Sher & Mann, 2003), and drugs that influence the actions of these chemicals are often used to care for mood disorders.
The brains of those with mood disorders may in some cases show structural differences from those without them. Videbech and Ravnkilde (2004) establish that the hippocampus was smaller in depressed subjects than in normal subjects, and this may be the upshot of reduced neurogenesis (the process of generating new neurons) in depressed people (Warner-Schmidt & Duman, 2006). Antidepressant drugs may alleviate low in part by increasing neurogenesis (Duman & Monteggia, 2006).
Research Focus: Using Molecular Genetics to Unravel the Causes of Depression
Avshalom Caspi and his colleagues (Caspi et al., 2003) used a longitudinal study to test whether genetic predispositions might lead some people, but not others, to suffer from depression equally a result of environmental stress. Their inquiry focused on a particular gene, the v-HTT cistron, which is known to exist of import in the product and use of the neurotransmitter serotonin. The researchers focused on this factor considering serotonin is known to be important in depression, and because selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been shown to be effective in treating low.
People who experience stressful life events, for instance involving threat, loss, humiliation, or defeat, are probable to experience low. But biological-situational models suggest that a person's sensitivity to stressful events depends on his or her genetic makeup. The researchers therefore expected that people with i type of genetic pattern would evidence depression following stress to a greater extent than people with a dissimilar type of genetic blueprint.
The enquiry included a sample of ane,037 adults from Dunedin, New Zealand. Genetic analysis on the basis of Dna samples allowed the researchers to split up the sample into two groups on the basis of the characteristics of their v-HTT gene. 1 group had a short version (or allele) of the factor, whereas the other group did not have the short allele of the gene.
The participants too completed a mensurate where they indicated the number and severity of stressful life events that they had experienced over the by five years. The events included employment, financial, housing, health, and human relationship stressors. The dependent measure in the report was the level of depression reported by the participant, as assessed using a structured interview exam (Robins, Cottler, Bucholtz, & Compton, 1995).
Every bit you can see in Figure 13.11 as the number of stressful experiences the participants reported increased from 0 to iv, depression as well significantly increased for the participants with the curt version of the gene (elevation panel). Just for the participants who did not accept a short allele, increasing stress did non increase depression (bottom panel). Furthermore, for the participants who experienced four stressors over the by five years, 33% of the participants who carried the short version of the gene became depressed, whereas just 17% of participants who did not have the curt version did.
This important study provides an splendid case of how genes and environment piece of work together: an individual's response to environmental stress was influenced by his or her genetic makeup.
But psychological and social determinants are also important in creating mood disorders and low. In terms of psychological characteristics, mood states are influenced in large part by our cognitions. Negative thoughts about ourselves and our relationships to others create negative moods, and a goal of cognitive therapy for mood disorders is to attempt to alter people's cognitions to be more positive. Negative moods as well create negative behaviours toward others, such as acting deplorable, slouching, and avoiding others, which may lead those others to reply negatively to the person, for instance by isolating that person, which then creates even more depression (Figure 13.12, "Cycle of Depression"). You can come across how it might get difficult for people to break out of this "cycle of low."
Weissman et al. (1996) constitute that rates of depression varied greatly among countries, with the highest rates in European and North American countries and the lowest rates in Asian countries. These differences seem to be due to discrepancies betwixt individual feelings and cultural expectations about what 1 should feel. People from European and North American cultures report that it is important to experience emotions such equally happiness and excitement, whereas the Chinese report that it is more of import to be stable and calm. Because N Americans may feel that they are not happy or excited merely that they are supposed to exist, this may increase their depression (Tsai, Knutson, & Fung, 2006).
Key Takeaways
- Mood is the positive or negative feelings that are in the background of our everyday experiences.
- We all may go depressed in our daily lives, but people who suffer from mood disorders tend to feel more intense — and specially more intense negative — moods.
- The well-nigh common symptom of mood disorders is negative mood.
- If a person experiences balmy simply long-lasting depression, he or she will be diagnosed with dysthymia. If the depression continues and becomes even more than severe, the diagnosis may get that of major depressive disorder.
- Bipolar disorder is characterized by swings in mood from overly "loftier" to sad and hopeless, and back over again, with periods of almost-normal mood in between.
- Mood disorders are caused by the interplay among biological, psychological, and social variables.
Exercises and Disquisitional Thinking
- Give a specific instance of the negative cognitions, behaviours, and responses of others that might contribute to a wheel of depression like that shown in Figure xiii.12, "Bike of Low."
- Given the discussion about the causes of negative moods and low, what might people do to effort to feel better on days that they are experiencing negative moods?
References
Berrettini, W. (2006). Genetics of bipolar and unipolar disorders. In D. J. Stein, D. J. Kupfer, & A. F. Schatzberg (Eds.),Textbook of mood disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Bowden, C. L. (2001). Strategies to reduce misdiagnosis of bipolar depression.Psychiatric Services, 52(1), 51–55.
Caspi, A., Sugden, 1000., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H.,…Poulton, R. (2003). Influence of life stress on low: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene.Science, 301(5631), 386–389.
Culbertson, F. One thousand. (1997). Depression and gender: An international review.American Psychologist, 52, 25–31.
De Dreu, C. G. Westward., Baas, Yard., & Nijstad, B. A. (2008). Hedonic tone and activation level in the mood-inventiveness link: Toward a dual pathway to inventiveness model.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(5), 739–756.
Duman, R. Southward., & Monteggia, L. G. (2006). A neurotrophic model for stress-related mood disorders.Biological Psychiatry, 59, 1116–1127.
Fairchild, 1000., & Scogin, F. (2008). Assessment and handling of depression. In Yard. Laidlow & B. Knight (Eds.),Handbook of emotional disorders in subsequently life: Assessment and handling. New York, NY: Oxford Academy Printing.
Health Canada. (2002). A Report on Mental Illnesses in Canada. Ottawa, Canada. Retrieved July 2022 from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/miic-mmac/chap_2-eng.php
Isen, A. Grand. (2003). Positive affect as a source of man strength. In J. Aspinall,A psychology of human strengths: Cardinal questions and time to come directions for a positive psychology (pp. 179–195). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P. A., Demler, O., Jin, R., & Walters, East. Eastward. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and historic period-of-onset distributions ofDSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R).Athenaeum of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O, Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, Grand. R.,…Wang, P. South. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R).Journal of the American Medical Association, 289(23), 3095–3105.
Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-calendar monthDSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.Archives of Full general Psychiatry, 62(half-dozen), 617–27.
Merikangas, Thou., Chakravarti, A., Moldin, S., Araj, H., Blangero, J., Burmeister, Thou,…Takahashi, A. Due south. (2002). Time to come of genetics of mood disorders enquiry.Biological Psychiatry, 52(half dozen), 457–477.
National Found of Mental Health. (2010, April 8). People with depression discuss their affliction. Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/media/video/wellness/depression.shtml
Navaneelan, T. (2012). Wellness at a Glance: Suicide rates: an overview. Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2022 from http://world wide web.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-624-x/2012001/article/11696-eng.htm
Robins, Fifty. North., Cottler, L., Bucholtz, Chiliad., & Compton, W. (1995).Diagnostic interview schedule for DSM-1V. St. Louis, MO: Washington University.
Sher, L., & Mann, J. J. (2003). Psychiatric pathophysiology: Mood disorders. In A. Tasman, J. Kay, & J. A. Lieberman (Eds.),Psychiatry. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Statistics Canada. (2012). Suicides and suicide charge per unit by sex and historic period group. Retrieved July 2014 from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/hlth66a-eng.htm
Sudak, H. S. (2005). Suicide. In B. J. Sadock & V. A. Sadock (Eds.),Kaplan & Sadock'due south comprehensive textbook of psychiatry. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Thomas, P., & Bracken, P. (2001). Vincent'south bandage: The art of selling a drug for bipolar disorder. British Medical Journal, 323, 1434.
Tsai, J. L., Knutson, B., & Fung, H. H. (2006). Cultural variation in affect valuation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 288–307.
Videbech, P., & Ravnkilde, B. (2004). Hippocampal volume and depression: A meta-analysis of MRI studies.American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1957–1966.
Warner-Schmidt, J. L., & Duman, R. S. (2006). Hippocampal neurogenesis: Opposing effects of stress and antidepressant treatment.Hippocampus, 16, 239–249.
Weissman, M. M., Banal, R. C., Canino, G. J., Greenwald, S., Hwu, H-G., Joyce, P. R., Yeh, E-K. (1996). Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder.Periodical of the American Medical Association, 276, 293–299.
Image Attributions
Effigy 13.9: "sad looking woman" by Bradley Gordon is licensed under CC BY 2.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ii.0/deed.en_CA)
Figure xiii.11: Adapted from Caspi, A., et al., 2003.
Long Description
| Number of stressful life events experienced | Major Low Episode (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| Group with brusque version of allele | Group without short version of allele | |
| 0 | 10% | 10% |
| one | eleven% | 16% |
| ii | 14% | xviii% |
| 3 | 28% | 11% |
| 4 or more | 33% | 18% |
[Return to Figure xiii.11]
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/12-3-mood-disorders-emotions-as-illness/
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